The Great Chinese Famine, spanning from 1959 to 1961, stands as one of the most catastrophic events in modern history. It’s a period remembered for extreme food shortages, leading to the deaths of millions. This famine resulted largely from flawed policies, natural disasters, and political instability, creating a devastating crisis.
The horror of the famine was evident in widespread reports of starvation, disease, and even cannibalism. Its impact lingered for decades, shaping China’s policies on agriculture and food security.
Lasting Impact on Health
Exposure to the Great Chinese Famine during prenatal and early life significantly increased the risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) in adulthood. This affected not only those directly exposed but also future generations. A 2020 study highlighted the long-term health effects of severe malnutrition during critical developmental stages. Researchers found a higher prevalence of TB among those who experienced the famine in the womb or early childhood, suggesting that malnutrition’s effects can pass through generations via epigenetic mechanisms.
The study involved a detailed analysis of health data from individuals born before, during, and after the famine, as well as their descendants. Findings revealed a higher incidence of TB among those exposed to the famine compared to those born in non-famine periods. This increased risk remained even after accounting for factors like socioeconomic status and healthcare access.
Research indicates that the health consequences of famine exposure aren’t limited to TB. Evidence suggests increased vulnerability to other infectious diseases and chronic conditions among populations exposed to famine, highlighting the broader implications of early-life malnutrition on long-term health. [1]
Rural-Urban Impact
Mao Zedong sought to rapidly transform China from an agricultural society into an industrialized socialist one. His program included agricultural collectivization and communal living, where large groups of households lived and worked together to boost production efficiency. Unfortunately, these policies led to widespread agricultural failures, as unrealistic production goals and poor planning reduced crop yields and created severe food shortages.
The policies’ impact was especially devastating in rural areas, where most of China’s population lived. Rural communities had to adopt inefficient farming practices and build backyard furnaces to produce steel, diverting labor from agriculture and worsening food shortages. Reduced food production and increased grain exports to meet state quotas left rural populations starving.
Urban areas were also affected, though less severely. While urban residents experienced food rationing and malnutrition, the government’s focus on sustaining industrial production in cities meant that urban populations generally fared better than their rural counterparts. However, the overall economic strain and resource misallocation affected both urban and rural areas, leading to widespread suffering. [2]
Four Pests Catastrophe
A significant contributor to the Great Chinese Famine was the “Four Pests Campaign,” launched by Mao Zedong in 1958. This campaign aimed to eradicate rats, flies, mosquitoes, and sparrows to improve public health and agriculture. Targeting sparrows, viewed as crop pests, caused an ecological imbalance. Sparrows help control insect populations, and their mass elimination led to a surge in crop-eating insects.
The loss of crops due to unchecked insect populations intensified the famine’s severity. In a desperate attempt to restore balance, China had to import 250,000 sparrows from the Soviet Union. Once reintroduced, the sparrows helped control insect populations, preventing further devastation. However, the ecological damage had already been done. The campaign later shifted to targeting bed bugs, but the impact of the initial disruption was felt for years. [3]
Abandonment of Infants
During the famine, thousands of children from Shanghai were evacuated to Inner Mongolia to escape starvation. This effort, by the central government, aimed to provide refuge and sustenance in a less affected region. The relocation was chaotic, with many children losing their identities during transit.
Upon arrival, the children faced a harsh and unfamiliar environment, with several dying shortly after. Local authorities set up nurseries to help them adapt before placing them with local families. One caretaker took in 28 children, showing dedication despite her lack of experience. Over time, many children were adopted by local families. However, the adoption process was difficult and, in some cases, involved mistreatment.
Decades later, the children, known as “Shanghai dolls,” began to reconnect with their past. The government eventually acknowledged their plight, enhancing recognition of their history. [4]
Inflated Grain Production Reports
Local leaders inflated grain production figures, on which taxes were based, leading the state to take a much higher percentage of the grain. The more exaggerated the figures, the more taxes were taken; in some regions, nearly the entire crop was forwarded to the state as tax, leaving nothing for the farmers. Leaders who had falsified reports refused to admit their errors and sometimes accused farmers of hiding grain. This led to farmers being hunted, beaten, and tortured by their own neighbors.
The appropriated grain often sat in state warehouses or was sent to cities where rations were cut (Mao supposedly went without meat for seven months). Undernourishment grew among the urban population, resulting in edema and other maladies. As food reserves in the countryside diminished, peasants began dying in droves by the summer of 1960. They collapsed in fields, on roadsides, and even at home, where family members watched their corpses rot, lacking the energy for burial or to shoo away flies and rats.
In a horrific practice, some families hid the remains of relatives to collect the food rations of the deceased. Hunger drove the starving to forage for seeds, grasses, leaves, and tree bark. When even these became scarce, they resorted to boiling leather or eating soil to fill their stomachs despite the damage it caused. [5]
Forced Labor
During the Great Leap Forward, the Communist Party implemented drastic measures, including forced labor. Millions of laborers were forcibly relocated from farms to steel production facilities, disrupting families and leaving collective farms staffed primarily by women, children, and the elderly.
The Communist Party also forced rural farmers onto collective farms and abolished private plot farming. On these communal farms, all production, resource allocation, and food distribution were centrally controlled by the Party. Centralization led to a sharp decline in grain production. Hundreds of thousands died due to forced labor and exposure while working on irrigation projects and communal farming tasks. The combination of forced relocations, harsh conditions, and ineffective central control resulted in widespread suffering and loss of life. [6]
Graves Turned into Farmland
During the Great Leap Forward, cemeteries were forced to convert their land into productive use, maximizing agricultural output. Available land was repurposed for cultivating vegetables and raising animals.
Reports documented the transformation, with cemetery land yielding abundant carrots, cabbages, and pigs. These stories were used to exemplify the potential for agricultural expansion in unconventional areas.
Burial spaces were limited to narrow alleys, allowing for land utilization. Less significant cemeteries were leveled and turned into farmland. Official records noted that 54,000 graves were exhumed, with no information on the fate of the remains. Authorities seemingly erased the cemeteries, repurposing the land for agricultural use. [7]
Delayed Admission of Mao’s Errors
In 2013, Xi Jinping acknowledged that Mao Zedong made significant mistakes, particularly during the Cultural Revolution and the Great Leap Forward. Xi noted that Mao’s policies led to hardships, including economic turmoil and social upheaval.
Xi stated that the Great Leap Forward resulted in disastrous agricultural policies and a famine that claimed millions of lives. Despite these errors, Xi highlighted that Mao’s contributions shouldn’t be overlooked.
The delay in acknowledging these mistakes raises questions about transparency within the Chinese leadership. [8]
Massive Death Toll
The death toll, estimated between 15 and 45 million, remains a contentious topic among historians. Accurate accounting is hindered by the scarcity of detailed records and government control over data.
China’s isolationist policies limited international awareness of the crisis. The disaster’s full extent wasn’t revealed until years later, complicating efforts to grasp its severity. Scholars continue to piece together information to construct a more comprehensive picture. [9]
Cannibalism
China’s people witnessed violence, including cannibalism, particularly in Guangxi province. Mao Zedong’s policies triggered chaos. Local officials promoted violence against perceived enemies, leading to executions and cannibalism. Victims, labeled as “class enemies,” faced executions, and their bodies were sometimes cannibalized.
In the 2000s, the head of the Anhui police department reported 1,289 cases of cannibalism in 1960. A survivor recounted graves being exhumed and organs removed for consumption. Due to emaciation, people ate organs like the liver and heart. There were reports of selling dead bodies to starving people. [10]
The Great Chinese Famine remains a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of political missteps, ecological mismanagement, and the suppression of truth. From the long-term health impacts to the horrific acts of survival, the realities of this period continue to haunt modern history. Understanding these events is crucial for preventing similar tragedies in the future.
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