“In the second century of the Christian era, the Empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and luxury.”
This was how Edward Gibbon, in his magisterial epic Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, characterized the Golden Age of Rome—two centuries of relative peace, political and economic stability and progress, and a flourishing of the arts, literature, and technology. From AD 27–180, Rome basked in the light of the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), which was supposed to be one of humanity’s happiest periods.
But the Pax Romana was anything but peaceful. The era witnessed some of the most brutal savagery and mayhem ever recorded. It was “peace” on Rome’s terms, as no one dared challenge its military might. Well, not everyone. In this list, we meet the brave people who stood up against an empire at the very pinnacle of its power.
Let’s delve into the major conflicts that shattered the illusion of the Pax Romana, revealing the turmoil beneath the surface of Rome’s golden age.
10. Conquest of Britain
Claudius, becoming emperor in AD 41 after Caligula’s assassination, sought to prove himself a worthy ruler. He decided to invade Britain, a project previously aborted by Caligula.
The conquest of Britain promised Claudius glory and booty. In AD 43, a 40,000-strong Roman force, led by General Aulus Plautius, landed on the south coast. The British warriors, though brave, were defeated near the Thames, ending the Catuvellauni threat.
The Romans expanded north, solidifying their rule despite numerous revolts, including one led by Boudicca. By AD 85, Roman control over Britain was secure. [1]
9. The War of the Armenian Succession
Armenia, a buffer zone between the Roman and Parthian empires, became a point of contention. In AD 52, Parthian King Vologases I invaded Armenia, placing his brother Tiridates on the throne. Emperor Nero dispatched General Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo to assert Roman dominance.
After the Roman’s devastating defeat at Carrhae, they were wary of the Parthian cavalry. Corbulo besieged fortresses and cities, prompting inhabitants to surrender without a fight. By AD 60, Rome controlled Armenia.
A final Parthian attempt to recoup in AD 63 led to the Treaty of Rhandia, granting both powers joint rule over Armenia. [2]
8. The First Jewish War
First-century Judea was filled with discontent against Roman rule. Many Jews expected a Messiah to overthrow the Romans, leading to revolutionary fervor. In AD 66, Roman procurator Gessius Florus robbed the Temple, triggering a riot.
The revolt inspired Zealots and led to the formation of forces against the Romans. The Romans sent 60,000 troops, surrounding Jerusalem. Inside, Jewish factions fought each other amidst starvation and disease.
On September 8, AD 70, the Romans breached Jerusalem, destroying the Temple and leading to an estimated million Jewish deaths. In AD 73, the Zealots at Masada committed mass suicide. [3]
The fall of Jerusalem marked the beginning of the Jewish diaspora and remains central to the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis.
7. The Year of the Four Emperors
By AD 68, Nero’s tyranny was unbearable, sparking a revolt led by governors Galba and his ally. Nero’s suicide led to Galba becoming emperor, but the Praetorian Guard expected payment for their loyalty.
Marcus Salvius Otho, expecting to be named successor, was betrayed when Galba chose Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus. Otho bribed the Praetorians, who assassinated Galba in AD 69.
The legions along the Rhine hailed Aulus Vitellus as emperor, while those in Asia Minor rallied behind Flavius Vespasian. Vitellus defeated Otho, but Vespasian’s forces eventually hunted down and killed Vitellus. Vespasian proved a popular leader, establishing the Flavian dynasty. [4]
6. The Revolt of Saturninus
Domitian, Vespasian’s youngest son, was a ruthless emperor hated by the Senate. Plots against him were common, and on January 1, AD 89, the governor of Germania Superior, L. Antonius Saturninus, rebelled.
Saturninus gained support by opposing Domitian’s dangerous campaign plans and allied with the Germanic Chatti tribe. However, the Rhine unexpectedly thawed, preventing Chatti support. With only two legions, Saturninus was defeated and killed.
Domitian purged army officers suspected of disloyalty, sending their heads to Rome as a warning, especially to the Senate. [5]
5. The Dacian Wars
Dacia, around modern Romania, drew Roman attention in AD 84–85 when they plundered Moesia. The ensuing war ended with a treaty in AD 89 that many felt favored the Dacians.
In AD 101, the Romans advanced on Dacia, defeating them at the Second Battle of Tapae. King Decebalus used the winter lull to invade Moesia but was pushed back. Trajan aimed to permanently subdue Dacia.
In AD 105, Trajan built a bridge across the Danube, invading Dacia. By AD 106, the capital, Sarmizegetusa, fell. Decebalus committed suicide to avoid capture. [6]
4. The Invasion of Parthia
In AD 113, Trajan aimed to resolve the constant threat from the Parthian Empire. Economic motives and the Armenian question drove his decision. Parthian King Osroes placed Parthamasiris on the Armenian throne, violating the Treaty of Rhandia.
In AD 114–115, Trajan invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia, annexing them to Rome. By AD 116, he invaded Parthia, capturing their capital, Ctesiphon. However, a Parthian counterattack forced Trajan to retreat.
Hadrian restored the status quo, but in AD 162, the Romans tried to install a king over Armenia. The Parthians retaliated, invading Roman Syria. Eventually, a plague swept through the Roman army, forcing Emperor Marcus Aurelius to concede. [7]
3. Kitos War
In AD 115, Jews in the diaspora revolted against Roman brutality. Rebels, led by Lukuas, took control of Cyrene and marched on Alexandria, killing many Gentiles. Uprisings also occurred in Mesopotamia, Cyprus and Judea.
Trajan dispatched General Lucius Quietus to crush the rebellion. After two years of fighting, Lukuas was driven from Africa and fled to Judea. Quietus besieged Lydda, massacring its inhabitants when it fell.
The Kitos War traumatized both Jews and Gentiles. Jews were banned from Cyprus, and tensions remained high in Judea. [8]
2. The Bar Kochba Revolt
After previous Jewish-Roman wars, Hadrian initially showed sympathy to the Jews, but later built Jerusalem as a Roman city. Messianic fervor surged when Simeon bar Kosiba led a rebellion, hailed as Bar Kochba (“Son of a Star”).
Initially successful, Bar Kochba captured Aelia Capitolina and defeated the Roman legion XXII Deiotariana. He styled himself a prince and minted his own coins.
By AD 134, Hadrian summoned reinforcements. In AD 135, the Romans besieged Bethar, killing every Jew, including Bar Kochba. The revolt cost 580,000 Jewish deaths. Hadrian banned Jewish practices, renamed Judea as Syria Palestina, and barred Jews from Jerusalem. [9]
1. Marcomannic War
By the 2nd century AD, Germanic tribes threatened Roman provinces. In AD 166, they invaded Italy. The Romans initially held back an attack, but weakened by a pandemic, failed to halt the Marcomanni and Quadi from ravaging Pannonia.
Marcus Aurelius took charge, rebuilding the army and recovering territory. While campaigning, he wrote Meditations. By AD 167, Italy stabilized, and in AD 172, the Romans invaded the Marcomanni and Quadi heartland.
By AD 179, the tribes were defeated but not subjugated. Marcus Aurelius strengthened frontier defenses. However, the myth of Roman invincibility was shattered, encouraging future incursions. [10]
In AD 180, Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by Commodus, marking the beginning of Rome’s decline.
Conclusion
The Pax Romana, while a period of growth and prosperity, was consistently challenged by wars and revolts. These conflicts exposed the empire’s vulnerabilities, revealing that the “Roman Peace” was maintained through constant vigilance and military might. Each war tested Rome’s resilience and contributed to the eventual decline of its once-unquestionable power.
Share your thoughts on these pivotal wars in the comments below!
