The journey of the New Testament is a complex and fascinating one, far removed from the simple narrative many might imagine. It wasn’t a singular event but a series of decisions, debates, and historical circumstances spanning centuries. Contrary to popular misconceptions, the Council of Nicaea in AD 325 did not create the New Testament canon.
Instead, the New Testament evolved through the decisions of bishops and various councils over time. There were intense debates about which texts should be included and which excluded. Achieving universal agreement on the New Testament’s contents was a hard-won and gradual process.
The Need for a New Testament
Early Christians initially relied on the Septuagint, the Greek translation of Jewish scripture. This served as their primary source for doctrine, practice, and moral guidance. They believed these ancient writings foreshadowed Christ, referencing Jesus’s own words: “Search the scriptures…they testify about me” (John 5:39).
The Apostle Paul used these scriptures to spread the Christian message among the Gentiles. However, Christians recognized the need for their own distinct writings. Starting around the mid-1st century, they began producing gospels, letters, theological treatises, and accounts of the apostles’ actions. While valued, these writings weren’t initially compiled into a single collection.
As the apostles passed away, the need for written records of their teachings became evident. These records were essential to guide future generations and resolve doctrinal and practical questions. This led to the development of a Christian “canon” (from the Greek word “kanon,” meaning “measuring rod”) of scripture.
Pre-Gospel Christianity
Oral traditions are thought to have circulated stories about Jesus before the Gospel of Mark was written, roughly 40 years after Jesus’s death. Surprisingly, Paul, the earliest Christian writer, seems unfamiliar with these stories. He doesn’t mention details about Jesus’s life, miracles, sayings, or parables.
Despite Paul’s silence, by the early 2nd century, Papias, the bishop of Hierapolis, indicated that written gospels were in circulation. Papias stated that Mark, acting as Peter’s interpreter, accurately recorded Peter’s recollections of Christ’s words and deeds. He also mentioned that Matthew compiled the oracles in Hebrew, with each person interpreting them as they could.
Justin Martyr (c. 100–185) knew of Gospel accounts but referred to his sources as the “Memoirs of the Apostles,” rather than naming specific Gospels. This suggests a collection of texts that were not yet attributed to specific authors.
The Marcionite Canon
Ironically, Marcion of Sinope (c. 95–165), a controversial figure, was the first to compile Christian documents into a canon. Marcion believed that the Jewish creator God was distinct from the loving Father of Jesus Christ and that only Paul truly understood the gospel.
Marcion’s canon included only one Gospel (a version of Luke) and ten of Paul’s letters (excluding Hebrews and the Pastoral Epistles). He allegedly altered the texts to remove elements he disagreed with, though this claim remains debated. It’s possible he used an earlier, incomplete version of Luke.
The early orthodox church responded by creating its own canon, appropriating Marcion’s idea to support its teachings. This new collection would become the New Testament, complementing the Old Testament.
The Four Gospels
During the second century, the challenge was determining which texts held authority. Numerous gospels, epistles, acts, and apocalypses circulated among Christian communities. Some gospels were attributed to apostles like Thomas, Philip, James, Judas, and even Mary Magdalene.
The Gospel of Peter was particularly popular. However, Serapion, the bishop of Antioch, initially approved it but later condemned it for containing docetic ideas (the belief that Jesus only appeared to be human).
Irenaeus, the bishop of Lyon, was the first to insist that only four gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—should be considered canonical. The actual authors of these texts remain unknown.
Irenaeus justified this number mystically, linking it to the four zones of the world, the four principal winds, and the four creatures in Ezekiel’s vision, which became symbolic of the four evangelists.
Scribal Alterations
Early orthodox Christians not only collected supportive documents but also altered texts to align with their doctrines. Much of the New Testament text was modified by scribes to varying degrees.
They aimed to counter Adoptionists (who denied Jesus’s divinity), Docetists (who denied Jesus’s humanity), and Separationists (who believed the divine Christ entered Jesus at baptism and left at crucifixion). Scribes “fixed” the texts to prevent these groups from using them to support their views.
Examples include changes in Matthew 1:16 to emphasize Jesus Christ as a single being and alterations in Mark 1:10 to remove Separationist interpretations of the Spirit’s descent upon Jesus.
Forgery in the New Testament
II Thessalonians 2:2 warns against being misled by forged letters supposedly from Paul, ironically, II Thessalonians itself is widely considered a forgery. In a time with low literacy, forging documents was relatively easy.
Writing under someone else’s name was used to promote theological viewpoints. New Testament writings labeled “pseudepigrapha” are considered forgeries. Six of the thirteen Pauline epistles—II Thessalonians, Ephesians, Colossians, I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus—are often regarded as forgeries.
Scholars identify forgeries by comparing stylistic and thematic elements to genuine letters of Paul, noting differences in writing style and thematic consistency.
Who’s In, Who’s Out
In the third century, the New Testament’s contents were still evolving. Clement of Alexandria accepted most of our current NT but also included texts like the Gospel of the Egyptians and the Epistle of Barnabas.
Tertullian used almost all of our NT but also included the Shepherd of Hermas. Origen, like others, had doubts about certain books but considered other texts like the Gospel of Peter canonical.
James, II Peter, II John, and III John, along with Hebrews, Jude, and Revelation, were designated as antilegomena (“books spoken against”), initially disputed but eventually canonical.
Revelation Squeezes Through
By the fourth century, the NT was nearing its final form. The only remaining point of contention was Revelation. Initially accepted as written by the Apostle John, doubts arose in the 3rd century due to suspicions it was forged.
Dionysus, the bishop of Alexandria, argued that Revelation’s language differed significantly from the Fourth Gospel. Despite these doubts, its positive reception by early church fathers led to its affirmation by the synods of Hippo (c. 393) and Carthage (c. 397).
The Easter Letter of Athanasius
The fourth century brought significant changes to the Church. Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity led to increased favor for Christians. In 325, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea, which formulated the Nicene Creed, solidifying Church orthodoxy.
In 367, Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, issued an Easter letter listing the 27 books of our present NT. This was the first authoritative statement on the canon. Athanasius declared that nothing should be added or removed from these books.
The discovery of 52 Gnostic texts in Nag Hammadi in 1945 reveals alternative versions of Christianity suppressed by the orthodox Church.
The Council of Trent
Not everyone agreed with Athanasius. Some still disputed the status of certain epistles. The Latin version of the Apostolic Canons (380) omitted Revelation but included I and II Clement.
In the 16th century, Martin Luther questioned the inclusion of James, Hebrews, Jude, and Revelation. In response, the Catholic Church reaffirmed the 27 NT books at the Council of Trent (1546), making it universally binding.
The contents of the NT were defined by doctrine rather than defining it. Acceptance of the 27-book NT canon relies on Catholic authority and tradition.
The evolution of the New Testament was a gradual and complex process, shaped by theological debates, political circumstances, and the dedicated work of many individuals. Understanding this history provides valuable insight into the texts that have profoundly influenced Western culture and thought.
What are your thoughts on the formation of the New Testament? Leave your comment below!
